Confederate Memphis

   Memphis was both an old city and a new city when the war began. Native Americans, like the Chickasaw and their ancestors, had inhabited the area for centuries. Settlers had built some homes on Fourth Bluff prior to October 1818, when the Chickasaw elders sold more than six million acres of land to the United States. Shelby County, named for Revolutionary War hero and Kentucky governor Col. Isaac Shelby, was established by the Tennessee General Assembly in November 1819. By the time Tennessee left the Union in 1861, Memphis was major port on the Mississippi River. Shelby County had a population of 48,092 people, which included 276 free people of color and 16,953 slaves. This included “bankers and manufacturers, cotton buyers and factors, wholesale grocers and slave traders, doctors and lawyers, editors and railroad presidents.” 22,623 people lived in Memphis alone, making it the thirty-eighth largest city in the United States. Memphis had a fire department, hospital, and city streets paved with cobblestones.[1] 

Memphis, ca.1862, LOC

   When the vote for United States president came in 1860, the men of Memphis cast 2,319 votes for Stephen Douglas, 2,250 votes for John Bell, and a mere 572 ballots for Vice President John C. Breckinridge. The men of Memphis were more inclined at this stage to conditionally support the Union. With the secession of South Carolina in December 1860, the tone of the people in Memphis slowly began to change. Both pro-Union and Secession meetings were held across the city. With the Federal resupply and subsequent Confederate attack on Fort Sumter, followed by Lincoln’s call for volunteers to suppress the rebellion, more and more Memphis citizens supported secession. Tennessee Governor Isham G. Harris called for a meeting of the legislature in Nashville. On May 6, the General Assembly passed a Declaration of Independence. The following day, Harris agreed to a military allegiance between Tennessee and the Confederate government. These actions were ratified by a public vote on June 8.

   Memphis, its port, the most important port in Tennessee, and even more importantly, the railroads, quickly entered the discussion. In August 1861, Confederate Rep. David M. Currin requested $160,000 “for the construction, equipment, and armament of two ironclad gunboats for the defense of the Mississippi River and the city of Memphis.” The bill was signed into law the next day.[2] Prior to the war, from 1844 to 1854, Memphis had a US Naval dock. Several private shipyards still existed along the Mississippi River. Two twin-screw vessels, the Arkansas and the Tennessee, were contracted to John T. Shirley, a local Memphis businessman. He was to deliver the two vessels by December 1861, at a cost of $76,920 each. The ships were to be 165 feet in length, and a draft of no more than 8 feet when loaded. Shirley struggled to find skilled carpenters and shipwrights, and both he and Secretary of the Navy Stephen Mallory implored district commander Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk for details of men to help with building the ships. Not having enough experienced hands, Shirley concentrated on building the Arkansas. Lieutenant Henry Kennedy Stevens arrived from Charleston, assigned as the executive officer of the Arkansas, and took charge of the operations.[3]

   Memphis appeared in the campaign plans of several Federal commanders, including George B. McClellan, David G. Farragut, and Abraham Lincoln. McClellan’s tenure as general-in-chief was short lived, although he did approve of a plan of taking New Orleans first, followed by Baton Rouge, the railroad hub at Jackson, Mississippi, and then Mobile, before setting his sights on Memphis. Farragut, a  “firm advocate of combined operations,” submitted a plan to force the Confederates out of their defenses around New Orleans, then proceed up the Mississippi River, taking Baton Rouge, Vicksburg, and then Memphis. After firing McClellan, Lincoln’s strategy was “a joint movement from Cairo to Memphis; and from Cincinnati to East Tennessee.”[4]

   Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, and Nashville fell in February. Governor Harris ordered the General Assembly to convene in Memphis on February 20. Island No. 10 fell in April 1862. Only Fort Pillow remained to protect Memphis. Mallory ordered the Arkansas to New Orleans if she was in danger of capture. To the west, the Confederates lost the battle of Shiloh on April 7, and to the south, the bombardment of New Orleans began on April 18. Four of the Southern flotilla from Fort Pillow made their way to Memphis after the fort was abandoned on May 10, 1862. The Federals knew of the construction of the ironclads at Memphis, and Farragut worried that just one of them could destroy most of his ships and maybe even retake New Orleans. Farragut would not get a crack at Memphis.[5]

   Braxton Bragg ordered the evacuation of Memphis, and by June 4, the earthworks constructed on the river were empty. Only the small naval flotilla remained. On June 6, Federal Commander Charles Davis, with five ironclads and four rams, headed toward Memphis. The Confederate fleet, eight vessels mounting twenty-eight guns, under Capt. Joseph E. Montgomery, was the only force between the Federals and city. In the two-hour-long fight, only one of the Confederate gunboats escaped: the General Van Dorn. Three Confederate vessels were destroyed, and four others fell into Union hands. The Arkansas had been towed up the Yazoo River a month before the battle of Memphis. Historian William N. Still, Jr., believes that had the Arkansas been left in Memphis, she might have been finished in time to take part in the battle. The Tennessee was destroyed the night before the battle of Memphis.[6]

   Mayor Parks surrendered Memphis, and the city was occupied by Col. G.N. Fitch and a brigade of Indiana Infantry. The civic leaders had to swear an oath of allegiance to the Union, and martial law was declared on June 13. Maj. Gen. U.S. Grant was in Memphis by June 23, finding the city in “bad order” and “secessionists governing much in their own way.”  Elections were held, and voters were required to swear the Oath of Allegiance before they could vote; property of pro-Confederate sympathizers was seized to pay for acts of destruction caused by partisans; partisans were “not entitled to the treatment of prisoners of war when caught”; it became a crime to display Confederate symbols; and, men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five had to take the oath or leave the city. Because Memphis was firmly under Federal control, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation did not apply to the city.[7]

  With local businesses refusing to open, hundreds of merchants from Cincinnati and Louisville arrived with goods, opening new stores. With open roads, this allowed goods to flow into Confederate hands. One observer believed that more than $20 million worth of supplies left Memphis, bound for the Confederate army, during the war. Confederate forces skirmished with their Federal counterparts in Shelby County frequently.  Memphis became a major supply depot for the Federals operating in western Tennessee, northern Mississippi and Alabama. Numerous raids and large-scale operations, both on the Mississippi River and overland, set out from Memphis. The Federals often retreated to the defenses of the city after confrontations with Confederate commander Nathan Bedford Forrest.[8]

   There was some discussion by the Confederate high command of recapturing the city. In October 1862, Jefferson Davis wrote to Maj. Gen. Theophilus H. Holmes with plans to unite Southern forces in the west and drive the Federals out of the area, recapturing Helena, Memphis, and then Nashville.[9] Nothing came of the idea, but on August 21, 1864, Nathan Bedford Forrest rode into Memphis with 1,500 men and two cannons. “I attacked Memphis at four o’clock this morning, driving the enemy to his fortifications,” Forrest wrote later that day. “We killed and captured four hundred, taking their entire camp, with about three hundred horses and mules. Washburn and staff escaped in the darkness of the early morning, Washburn leaving his clothes behind.”[10] “Memphis Captured by Forrest” ran several Northern newspaper headlines. While Forrest failed to capture the three Federal generals in the city and only held the city for a few hours, he did divert the attention and draw resources away from other theaters of the war.[11]

General Washburn leaving his clothes behind. 

   While Memphis was spared the fate of other Southern cities like Atlanta, Columbia, and Richmond, it had one final role to play for history. On April 27, 1865, the boilers on the S.S. Sultana, carrying over 2,200 former Federal prisoners from Andersonville and Cahaba, exploded in the Mississippi River just north of Memphis. It is believed that 1,195 of the 2,200 passengers and crew perished in the explosion and subsequent fire. The loss of the Sultana was the deadliest maritime disaster in United States history. Many of the victims are buried in the Memphis National Cemetery.

    While every other Southern city with a population of over 20,000 people has a history of its wartime years(and in some case, multiple published histories), Memphis apparently does not.

 

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[1] Dowdy, A Brief History of Memphis, 13-24.

[2] Still, Iron Afloat, 16.

[3] Luraghi, A History of the Confederate Navy, 107, 119, 129.

[4] Reed, Combined Operations in the Civil War, 61-62, 66.

[5] Reed, Combined Operations in the Civil War, 198.

[6] Luraghi, A History of the Confederate Navy, 169; Still, Iron Afloat, 62.

[7] Dowdy, A Brief History of Memphis, 13-24.

[8] Dowdy, A Brief History of Memphis, 13-24; Long, Civil War Day-by-Day.

[9] Papers of Jefferson Davis,  8:454-56.

[10] Wyeth, That Devil Forrest, 417.

[11] Daily Ohio Statesman, August 25, 1864; The Times-Democrat, August 28, 1864; New York Daily Herald, August 29, 1864.

The Sea Wolf of the Confederacy Slips into Portland, Maine.

   Naval activities during the war are stories that capture the attention of many. Often-repeated stories include the battle between the CSS Virginia and USS Monitor in March 1862, the CSS H. L. Hunley sinking the USS Housatonic in Charleston Harbor in February 1864, the cruises of the CSS Alabama, and the CSS Shenandoah. Another interesting naval event that is not mentioned as frequently involves the crew of the CSS Archer sailing into the port at Portland, Maine, and capturing the USS Caleb Cushing.

   Lt. Charles W. Read has been referred to as the “Sea Wolf of the Confederacy.” Born not far from Yazoo County, Mississippi, in 1840, he graduated last in his class from the U.S. Naval Academy and served on board the USS Powhatan as a midshipman before resigning on February 4, 1861. Joining the Confederate navy, he was appointed acting midshipman on April 13, 1861. Read saw much of the war. He commanded batteries on Ship Island, Mississippi, dueling with the USS Massachusetts; and he was executive officer on board the CSS McRae and assumed command when the captain was wounded at the battles of Fort Jackson and St. Phillip. In February 1862, Read was promoted to lieutenant and served on board the CSS Arkansas, then commanded a shore battery at Port Hudson, Louisiana. In October 1862, he joined the crew of the CSS Florida, and after the brig Clarence was captured, was given independent command. He then went on to capture the barks Tacony on June 12 and later the Archer. The latter was captured on June 24, 1863, off the coast of Portland, Maine.[1] 

Charles W. Reed

   Between June 12 and June 26, Read captured at least nineteen vessels, including the Tacony and the Archer. Five of these ships were bonded. The Archer was re-captured, and the others were burned. While the North’s attention was mostly diverted by the disappearance of the Army of Northern Virginia from the front at Fredericksburg, many in the North were watching the reports of “pirates” in newspapers. One New York newspaper reported on June 15 that six merchant vessels had recently been captured, three of which were captured forty-fives miles off Cape Charles. The New York Tribune editor taunted the Navy with “This Rebel cruiser Tacony in a few hours makes her appearance under the very nose of the Yankees and frightens them half to death.”[2]

   The New York Chamber of Commerce asked the U.S. Navy to provide convoys for American ships heading out to sea. The Mayor of New York wanted the frigate Roanoke sent to New Your City to be used in the defense of the town. Others wanted a price put onto the heads of Read and his crew and privateer licenses granted to individuals  would seek out Read. In Boston, an insurance company offered a price of $10,000 for the capture of the Tacony.[3]

   Read mounted one cannon, a howitzer, on the Tacony, and continued moving north. With the Federal navy in pursuit, Read transferred his crew and cannon to the captured Archer. On June 26, the Archer was in the Gulf of Maine. With the assistance of two captured fisherman, Read sailed into the Portland Harbor. In Portland Harbor, Read found the Caleb Cushing. Built in 1853 in Somerset, Massachusetts, the cutter was one 100 feet in length and had a single 32-pound cannon. Read and his crew captured the cutter in the dark. It took thirty minutes to haul the anchor up using the windlass. Due to the tide being out, the Caleb Cushing had to be towed out of the harbor. As dawn broke, it was discovered that the Caleb Cushing was missing. By 11:00 am, the Forest City, Casco, and the Chesapeake set out to pursue the Caleb Cushing. Later that day, the Federals caught up with the Confederates. Read’s men had found only five shots (one account says eight) for the 32-pounder. After firing his fifth shot and realizing that he could not out-run the smaller ships, Read set the Caleb Cushing on fire and abandoned ship, taking the Caleb Cushing’s small boats. A white flag was produced, and the Confederates were captured.[4]

   Read was incarcerated at Fort Warren, in Massachusetts, then paroled and exchanged in September or October 1864. He went on to command two James River batteries, then the torpedo boat squadron on the James River. In April 1865, he took command of the William H. Webb which moved from Shreveport, Louisiana to the Mississippi River. As he went, he cut telegraph lines and slipped through three Union fleet districts before being disabled and captured. He was again imprisoned at Fort Warren where he took the Oath of Allegiance and was released. After the war, he captained a fruit schooner in the Caribbean and became a pilot in New Orleans. He died in Meridian, Mississippi, in January 1890. A marker at his grave proclaims him a “Naval Hero of the Confederacy.”  The monument, dedicated in 2000, goes on to state that the raid up the coast to Portland, Maine, and the capture of the Caleb Cushing, was “the most brilliant, daredevil naval action of the war.”[5]

 

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[1] Foster, “Charles W. Read,” Encyclopedia of the Confederacy, 4:1308-10.

[2] New York Times, June 15, 1863. Articles also appeared in the Buffalo Weekly Express, New York Daily Herald, New York Tribune, Boston Evening Transcript, etc.

[3] Jones, Confederate Corsair, 119.

[4] Jones, Confederate Corsair, 4-14; Mirza, Encyclopedia of Civil War Shipwrecks, 77.

[5] Clarion-Ledger, July 13, 2000.

Confederate Naval Flags

    The Confederate Navy has a remarkable history, a history that does not get nearly enough print time. Part of the challenge is the loss of records at the end of the war. But there are still plenty of avenues to explore.

CSS Alabama Ensign Mariners Museum 

   Confederate Naval flags are just one of those subjects. A ship could have two or more flags. A naval jack is flown from a jackstaff at the bow (or front) of the vessel, while an ensign is frown from a mast. An ensign is usually much larger than a jack. There are also naval pennants and signal flags. Unfortunately, we really don’t have any photographs of Confederate naval vessels under sail, or steam, so our images are limited to artist renditions or surviving flags (we’ll talk about written accounts in another post). In May 1863, Secretary of the Navy Stephen Mallory adopted regulations for naval flags. The Second National was the official ensign. According to regulations, the width of the flag was to be two-thirds its length. “The Jack,” according to the same regulations, was “to be the same as the union for the Ensign, except that its length shall be one and a half times its width.”

CSS Alabama Ensign  Mariners Museum

   It seems that the majority of the surviving Confederate naval flags are the Ensigns. These are usually First or Second National flags and are usually quite large. At the same time, no two Confederate naval ensigns seem to be the same size. The First Nationals in the old Museum of the Confederacy’s collections are recorded as such (in inches): CSS Calhoun, 61x150; CSS Jeff Davis 77x92; unknown, 53x132; and, another unknown 80x120.

Other vessels had Second National flags. The CSS Albemarle lost two Second Nationals when the ship was captured in October 1864. The first was 105x200, and the second was 80x125. The Second National of the CSS Shenandoah measured 88x136. The museum’s collection has only one Confederate naval jack – from the CSS Savannah--which measures 63x103.

Several flags from the CSS Alabama, probably the second-most-famous of all Confederate naval vessels,  survive. One of those is a First National, 64x112 ½ inches. The flag is considered an “auxiliary flag,” and according to tradition, was found floating among the flotsam after the battle with the USS Kearsarge (it was purchased from a shop in Paris in 1884). It is possible that this flag was also used on the CSS Sumter. This flag is at the Alabama Department of Archives and History. The Mariner’s Museum in Virginia has both a First National Ensign (33x50) and a Second National Ensign (108x186) in its collections attributed to the CSS Alabama.  The Tennessee State Museum has a Second National, measuring 106x209. This flag was captured by a sailor from the USS Kearsarge on June 19, 1864.

CSS Jeff Davis Ensign, Museum of the Confederacy

The Alabama Department of Archives and History also has the flag of the CSS Florida, a Second National measuring 72½ x 142¼; and, the Second National of the CSS Huntsville (could not find the size).

CSS Savannah Naval Jack, Museum of the Confederacy

The South Carolina Confederate Relic Room & Museum has a Confederate Naval Jack. It measures 22 ¼ x 30 ½. It has a red field with eleven stars in a Christian cross pattern.

There are undoubtedly other naval flags out there. The National Civil War Museum in Columbus, Georgia, has several naval flags in its collection, but a good online description could not be found. The above post is not to be seen as a definitive account.

Sources:

Dedmondth, The Flags of Civil War Alabama (2001)

Dedmondth, The Flags of Civil War North Carolina (2003)

Dedmondth, The Flags of Civil War South Carolina (2000)

Rose, Colours of the Gray: An Illustrated Index of Wartime Flags from the Museum of the Confederacy’ Collection (1998)

CSS Appomattox found!

Not much going on in the news related to the war this week except all of the stories connected to the discovery of the CSS Appomattox. According to one of the articles below, the CSS Appomattox was “part of what was known as the Mosquito Fleet — a collection of small armed steamers that defended the northeastern North Carolina sounds during the Civil War. The boat was set on fire in February 1862 by its own crew as they were attempting to escape Federal gunboats after the Battle of Elizabeth City. Though they attempted to get through the Dismal Swamp Canal, the boat proved too wide. Rather than have it captured by the Union Navy, the crew set the boat ablaze…”

You can learn more by checking out these articles:

DailyAdvance.com

Associated Press

The Virginia Pilot

John Newland Maffitt

This morning, I found a interesting article on John Newland Maffitt (by Chris Fonvielle) on the Wrightsville Beech Magazine web site. You can check it out here.